March 17th,
2008
Middle School CIA Agenda
Announcements:
Science Fair
3rd Quarter
Assessment Information
Teacher Opportunities/
Resources
Discussion Topic:
Peer Teaching
-Research
-Examples
-Small groups/ brainstorming
ways to incorporate Peer Teaching
into science instruction.
PEER TEACHING
Group participants:
Peer Teaching ideas/
activities:
PEER TEACING IDEAS
MARCH 17TH MIDDLE SCHOOL CIA
-Self- Evaluation- gives list
of things that have to be done within the group- keeps groups on task.
- Debate style presentations-
2 opposing teams & audience participation asking questions.
-Group higher & lower
level kids together for labs .
Higher kids help the lower
kids develop procedures and also during the write-ups.
- Put students into groups
(spread abilities/ mix). Pick
leader for group. Have leader
delegate responsibilities and other group members to meet group goal
·
Series of questions to
be answered.
·
2 Assignments, grouping
students of mixed ability.
·
Every group has
different tasks (if group of four, then need a fourth piece).
·
Keep simple, low number
of tasks.
Topics: Periodic Table
Cell (organelles)
Organ Systems
Nutrition
-Area for differentiation:
·
With peer review
activities, if students struggling with certain concepts, assign that topic-
know when able to educate.
·
Differentiate for
interest. Good with topics that
can further broken down. Ex. Human body systems, organs/ functions.
- Good for areas of
supplemental/ enrichment learning.
·
Ex, 8th
grade- Astronomy/ Solar System.
·
7th grade-
Reproduction- sexual health/ STD’s.
- Provides social
development/ encouragement for quiet or “lost” students. Helps them to show their knowledge.
- Sentence scramble ex. Cell
parts.
- Science pictionary.
- Publisher software: produce
a brochure, group activity, different topics.
- Use as an end of the year
project reflecting the entire years interdisciplinary units.
- Use for background
information for the state embedded task.
- Use as review in the form of
Jeopardy, Family Feud, etc.
- Grade 6
Simple Machines Review
·
Each group is given a
different simple machine.
·
Requirements:
1. Build an example of their simple machine- share
characteristics with class.
2. Oral presentation to class based on the simple machine
that they built.
3. Overall group/class task- put together a compound
machine using 2+ simple machines which were presented. Machine must have real-world
application.
4. Present compound machine to class in form of an
advertisement and a heading/ machine picture/price/where it can be purchased-
what it does.
5. Class rates projects based on given rubric.
Grade 7
- Each group is given an
organ system.
- Powerpoint or poster based
on rubric.
- Present to class.
Grade 8
- Each group is given a type
of bridge.
- Powerpoint/Poster.
Final Exam Peer Review
project
Goal
·
In a small group, come
up with a review presentation on your assigned/ chosen topic to present to your
classmates.
·
Help your classmates and
yourself study for and be successful on the chemistry final.
·
Your group will need to
come up with a 5 minute power point presentation, a review ditto, and something
creative as it relates to your topic- ex. a poster, poem, rap, etc.
Role
·
You are the teacher.
·
You have been asked to
review for the chemistry final
·
Increase student success
on the final.
Audience
·
Your clients are the
teacher and student.
·
Your target audience are
you chemistry peers
·
You need to convince
your classmates.
Situation
·
The context is putting
yourself in the role of the teacher.
·
The challenge is to help
as many of your classmates as possible to study and get ready for the final
using three different teaching methods.
Product, Performance, and
Purpose
·
You will create a 10
minute small group presentation to the class. in order to present a meaningful
(and memorable) review presentation
·
5 minute power point
presentation, a review sheet and something creative relating to your topic to
account for different learning styles.
Standards and Criteria for
Success
·
You need to have all
three parts to the review and all group members must participate in the
presentation.
·
Your peer review project
will be judged by the teacher using a rubric and will be worth 1 test score.
Final Exam Peer Review
Project- worth one test score for fourth marking period.
|
Peer Review Rubric |
Beginning |
Developing |
Accomplished |
Exemplary |
Score |
|
Introduction |
Does not give any information about what to expect
in the report. |
Gives very little information. |
Gives too much information--more like a summary. |
Presents a concise lead-in to the topic. |
|
|
Research |
Does not answer any questions suggested in the
template. |
Answers some questions. |
Answers some questions and includes a few other
interesting facts. |
Answers most questions and includes many other
interesting facts. |
|
|
Problem |
Does not address an issue related to chemistry. |
Addresses a chemistry issue which is unrelated to
research. |
Addresses an issue somewhat related to research. |
Addresses a real issue directly related to research
findings. |
|
|
Power Pont Presentation |
Not sequential, most info is missing or are
confusing. |
Some of the info is easy to understand most is confusing and lacks detail. |
Most of the info is easy to understand; some lack
detail or are confusing. |
Presents easy-to-follow info which is logical and
adequately detailed. |
|
|
Results |
missing info and inaccurate. |
Both complete, minor inaccuracies and/or unclear |
Both accurate, some unclear info. |
Presents totally accurate
and clear info |
|
|
Conclusion |
Presents an illogical explanation for findings and
does not address any of the questions suggested in the template. |
Presents an illogical explanation for findings and
addresses few questions. |
Presents a logical explanation for findings and
addresses some of the questions. |
Presents a logical explanation for findings and
addresses most of the questions. |
|
|
Directions Followed |
Directions not followed |
Missing one whole part |
Missing partial piece |
Contains power point, peer review document and
creative piece. |
|
|
Teamwork |
Lack of flow between team members. Poorly organized |
Flow of presentation shows lack of cooperation and
familiarity with project |
All team members show some familiarity with topic |
All members of team actively participate and show
clearly that they understand topic |
|
|
Peer Review Document |
Report handed in more than one week late. |
Up to one week late. |
Up to two days late. |
Report handed in on time. |
|
School Improvement Research Series
(SIRS)
Research You Can Use
|
Close-Up
#18 |
Peer and Cross-Age Tutoring
Page Kalkowski |
Introduction
It is likely that peer and
cross-age tutoring have been part of human existence since hunter-gatherer
times. As Jenkins and Jenkins write, "Tutorial instruction (parents
teaching their offspring how to make a fire and to hunt and adolescents
instructing younger siblings about edible berries and roots) was probably the
first pedagogy among primitive societies" (1987, p. 64). Wagner, on the
other hand, traces the historical origins of peer tutoring in Western
civilization back to Greece in the first century A.D. and through Rome,
Germany, other European locales, and finally America (1990). Topping's history
dates the formalized use of peer tutoring back to the 1700s (1988, pp. 12-18).
Other academics trace peer tutoring back to the "Monitorial System"
of the early nineteenth century (Bland and Harris 1989, p. 142).
Definitions
Probably the most succinct
definition of peer tutoring comes from Damon and Phelps: "Peer tutoring is
an approach in which one child instructs another child in material on which the
first is an expert and the second is a novice" (1989a, p. 11). However,
multiple definitions of peer tutoring exist, and they are not all consistent.
For example, not all peer tutors are "experts." They are sometimes
randomly assigned, same-age classmates (Greenwood, Delquardi, and Hall 1989;
Palincsar and Brown 1986; Dinwiddie 1986) or same-aged low achievers (Pigott
1986). To make matters more confusing, the term "peer tutoring" often
subsumes both cross-age and same-age tutoring. As Gaustad explains:
Peer tutoring occurs when
tutor and tutee are the same age. In cross-age tutoring, the tutor is older
than the tutee. However, sometimes the term peer tutoring is used to include
both types. (1993, p. 1)
Finally, some researchers
imply that there is no such thing as a true "peer" tutor. As Damon
and Phelps put it:
. . . peer tutoring is often
called "cross-age" tutoring, because the tutor is usually two or more
years older than the tutee. In a strict sense, the phrase "peer
tutoring" is something of an oxymoron. (1989b, p. 137)*
As if the overlap between
peer and cross-age tutoring was not confusing enough, peer and cross-age
tutoring also go by the names of "peer teaching," "peer
education," "partner learning," "peer learning,"
"child-teach-child," and "learning through teaching"
(Britz, Dixon, and McLaughlin 1989, p. 17); and there has been at least one
instance in which cooperative learning has been referred to as peer-tutoring**
(Wagner 1982, p. 225). Furthermore, peer tutoring is a type of "peer
resource programming," and shares attributes with youth service, youth
involvement, peer helping (or counseling), peer mediation, peer leadership, and
cooperative learning. Peer tutoring has also been called one approach to
"peer cooperation," along with cooperative learning and peer
collaboration. "Peer collaboration" differs from peer tutoring in
that children begin at roughly the same levels of competence when they
collaborate to "solve tasks that neither could do previously" (Damon
and Phelps 1989b, p. 142). Finally, "Mutual Instruction" or MI has
been proposed as a more descriptive term than peer and cross-age tutoring (and
counseling) (Swengel 1991, p. 704).
Why
Use Peer and Cross-Age Tutoring?
There are three commonly
cited benefits of peer and cross-age tutoring: the learning of academic skills,
the development of social behaviors and classroom discipline, and the
enhancement of peer relations (Greenwood, Carta, and Hall 1988, p. 264).
Researchers have also identified improvements in self-esteem and one of its
components--internal locus of control. It is important to note that all such
benefits accrue to both tutor and tutee.
Some writers also cite broader benefits.
Hedin, for example, cites "a more cooperative, pleasant classroom
atmosphere" and "[recruiting] promising future teachers into the
profession" (1987, p. 44). Still other potential benefits are
better-adjusted students with skills transferable to parenting when they mature
(Strayhorn, Strain, and Walker 1993). The focus of this report is direct
benefits for tutors and tutees, but it also touches briefly on some indirect
effects of interest to parents, teachers, and administrators.
The
Research Base
The research literature on
the subjects of peer and cross-age tutoring is extensive. One 1987 review
indicated that more than 100 reports by teachers and researchers had been
collected by the ERIC system alone (Hedin 1987), and a 1982 review found more
than 500 titles by searching three different databases (Cohen, and Kulik 1981;
Cohen, Kulik, and Kulik 1982). This document is by no means an exhaustive
synthesis of the literature on peer and cross-age tutoring. It draws primarily
on research that has been published during the last ten years and upon research
sources that are relatively easy to identify and retrieve. It is chiefly
concerned with research that establishes a connection between peer or cross-age
tutoring and student outcomes, and focuses mainly on students in grades K-12.
This report references 82 documents. Each is
cited and annotated in one of two sections--the Key References and the General
References. The 32 Key References are research reviews, controlled experimental
studies, or documents that are in some other way central to the present
discussion. Of the eight research reviews, four deal with both peer and
cross-age tutoring, three deal with peer tutoring alone, and one deals only
with cross-age tutoring. Five of the reviews focus only on learning disabled,
at-risk, or special education students. The General References section cites
pieces that are less central to a review of effectiveness, are smaller in
scope, or address issues in less depth than key documents do. In both sets of
references, there are peer as well as cross-age studies; elementary, middle,
high-school and college studies; and studies of both "regular" and
"special needs" students.
Research
Findings
The peer and cross-age
tutoring research conducted prior to the past decade is well represented by
Cohen, Kulik, and Kulik's 1982 meta-analysis. Using strict methodological
criteria, these researchers selected 52 well-designed studies describing
program effects on test scores, chiefly in reading and math. The results showed
a moderately beneficial effect on tutees achievement and a smaller but
significant effect on their attitudes toward subject matter. Looking at the
effects on TUTORS, the researchers found a small but significant effect for
academic outcomes and for self-concept and a slightly larger effect for
attitudes toward subject matter. Math achievement effects were stronger than
reading effects for both tutors and tutees. Tutees' achievement improved more
in more structured programs of shorter duration and when lower-level skills were
taught and tested on locally developed examinations.
Most reports of tutoring's effectiveness
published since the Cohen, et al. meta-analysis are based on studies of
particular subjects or particular student populations. Thus, effectiveness is
discussed here in the context of such categories.
MATHEMATICS
Both tutors and tutees have
been shown to benefit academically from peer and cross-age tutoring in
elementary mathematics (Britz, Dixon, and McLaughlin 1989; Damon and Phelps
1989a; Pigott, Fantuzzo, and Clement 1986). Math skills addressed in this
research included ratio, proportion, and perspective taking, among others.
Effects on affective outcomes in mathematics research were less conclusive,
although there is evidence that peer tutoring can increase the formation of
friendship bonds between partners. Many of the students in this research were
low achievers, mildly handicapped, or socially disadvantaged.
LANGUAGE ARTS
Researchers have also noted
significant beneficial effects on the language arts achievement of tutors
(Rekrut 1992) and especially tutees (Palincsar and Brown 1986; Wheldall and
Mettem 1985; Wheldall and Colmar 1990; Giesecke, et al. 1993; and Barbetta, et
al. 1991). Language arts areas examined include story grammar, comprehension, identification
of sight words, acqusition of vocabulary, and general reading skills. Most of
this research involved elementary students (some were middle-schoolers), and
positive results were found for both short- and long-term tutoring.
OTHER SUBJECTS
Research studies in the areas
of peer and cross- in tutoringin science, social studies, health, and art are
too few to permit firm conclusions about the achievement effects of these
practices--indeed, some of this research did not address achievement outcomes.
However, some positive achievement outcomes were noted (Rosenthal 1994; Bland
and Harris 1989; Maheady, Sacca, and Harper 1988; Thurston 1994; and Anliker,
et al. 1993).
AFFECTIVE OUTCOMES
Studies whose main focus was
the affective outcomes produced by peer and cross-age tutoring have generally
revealed positive results. These include improved attitudes of younger students
toward older ones, increased "internality" of locus of control, and
improved school attendance (Raschke, et al. 1988; Dohrn 1994; Imich 1990; and
Miller, et al. 1993).
Studies pertaining to high-needs student
populations are presented in the next section of this report.
High-Needs
Students
AS TUTORS
Research on low-achieving and
other high-needs students as tutors has increased in the last decade. Both
wide-ranging reviews and individual studies show impressive gains for
low-achieving, limited-English-speaking, learning disabled, behaviorally
disordered and other at-risk student populations in both the academic and
affective realms and at all age/grade levels. Areas showing significant
benefits for tutors engaged in peer or cross-age tutoring include:
- Academic
achievement in various subject areas, particularly reading and mathematics
(Byrd 1990; Cardenas, et al. 1991; Maheady, et al. 1988, 1991; McLaughlin
and Vacha 1992)
- Locus
of control (Lazerson, et al. 1988)
- Self-esteem
(Byrd 1990; Cardenas, et al. 1991)
- Social
skills (Mathur and Rutherford 1991)
- Attitude
toward school (Cardenas, et al. 1991)
- Dropout
rate, truancy, tardiness (Cardenas, et al. 1991; Lazerson, et al. 1988).
AS TUTEES
A variety of studies have
shown that students with disabilities benefit from being tutored. One broad
review of studies of both regular and special education students and across a
variety of subject areas, concluded that cross-age and same-age peer-mediated
strategies were as effective or more effective than the traditional
teacher-mediated practices to which they were compared (Greenwood, Carta, and
Kamps 1990). Studies addressing specific categories of disability have also
found academic and affective benefits, specifically improvements in
mathematics, social skills, and time-on-task. These are identified below:
- Learning
disabilities (Trapani and Gettinger 1989)
- Severe
disabilities (Staub and Hunt 1993)
- Mental
handicap (Vacc and Cannon 1991; Maheady, Sacca, and Harper 1988)
- Language
delay (Goldstein and Wickstrom 1986)
- Autism
(Walker 1985)
- Attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder (DuPaul and Henningson 1993)
- Special
education (Fowler 1986).
Cost
In a comparison of the
cost-effectiveness of Computer Aided Instruciton (CAI), peer tutoring, reducing
class size and increasing the length of the school day, peer tutoring was found
to be more cost-effective than CAI (Levin, Glass, and Meister 1987, pp. 50-72).
Both peer tutoring and CAI were shown to be more cost-effective than reducing
class size or increasing the length of the school day. However, Greenwood,
Carta, and Kamps have called attention to high start-up costs, including
planning time, teacher training, consultation, peer-group or peer-tutor
training, and monitoring to insure quality control. Even so, they say
peer-tutoring operating costs may be lower than those of other programs (1990,
p. 197).
Why
Does Peer Tutoring Work?
One reason peer tutoring
works may be that tutors and tutees speak a more similar language than do
teachers and students (Hedin 1987; Cazden 1986). As Damon and Phelps put it,
Unlike adult-child
instruction, [in] peer tutoring the expert party is not very far removed from
the novice party in authority or knowledge; nor has the expert party any
special claims to instructional competence. Such differences affect the nature
of discourse between tutor and tutee, because they place the tutee in a less
passive role than does the adult/child instructional relation. Being closer in
knowledge and status, the tutee in a peer relation feels freer to express
opinions, ask questions, and risk untested solutions. The interaction between
instructor and pupil is more balanced and more lively. This is why
conversations between peer tutors and their tutees are high in mutuality even
though the relationship is not exactly equal in status. (1989a, p. 138)
Peer tutors may simply be
"good teachers." Teaching behaviors that were found to be positively
related to response rates and academic gains in the research include on-task
behavior, prompting and guiding, praise and encouragement, adjusting to the
child's needs, managing behavior problems, allowing autonomous performance,
bonding, cooperation, "go-faster" prompts, and "help"
(Gorrell and Keel 1986; Kohler 1986).
Six conditions have been identified which may
be needed for effectively transmitting knowledge through peer tutoring: (1) The
tutor must provide relevant help which is (2) appropriately elaborated, (3)
timely, and (4) understandable to the target student; (5) the tutor must
provide an opportunity for the tutee to use the new information; and (6) the
tutee must take advantage of that opportunity (Webb 1989, p. 24).
A more detailed analysis of the theoretical
issues underlying peer tutoring has been done by Foot, Shute, Morgan, and
Barron (1990, pp. 65-92). For more background theory on the way children think
and learn, see Wood (1988) and Wellman (1990); and for a more general theoretical
treatment of peer interaction in cooperative work, see Hertz, Lazorowitz, and
Miller (1992).
Obstacles
To Use
Many writers lament the fact
that peer tutoring is not used more often. As one teacher/author put it,
"However ancient peer tutoring might be, many schools bypassed it when
searching for effective ways to meet academic goals" (Martino 1994, p.
55). A retired teacher and professor, who is quite passionate about the need
for such expansion, has said that "what has been fundamentally wrong with
formal schooling for thousands of years is [the basic instructional unit of
teacher-and-class]" and peer tutoring (or, as he says, "mutual
instruction") is the solution (Swengel 1991, p. 704).
Professor Diane Hedin calls the fact that
peer tutoring is not more widely used "a mystery" and offers
suggestions in the hopes of expanding its use (1987, p. 42). Reissman calls the
potential of peer tutoring an "unutilized resource" of minimal cost
and high effectiveness (1993, p. 1). Finally, alcohol-and-drug-abuse prevention
specialist Bonnie Benard strongly advocates a "peer resource model of
education" based on seven ways in which research has indicated that peer
relationships contribute to children's social and cognitive development. In her
words, "It seems imperative we encourage and provide youth the
opportunities to relate to each other and work together in a cooperative and/or
collaborative way from early childhood on" (1990, p. 5).
Why, then, are peer and cross-age tutoring
not in widespread use? One reason may be that, in spite of the many positive
reviews and studies discussed above, prominent researchers considered the
evidence on tutoring to be insufficient as recently as 1988. Greenwood, Carta,
and Hall indicated five limitations and/or areas in need of future research at
that time: (1) Strategies utilizing students with disabilities as tutors were
insufficiently developed and validated; (2) peer tutoring procedures other than
"specific cooperative learning strategies, cross-age tutoring, the tutor 'huddle'
and classwide peer tutoring" were insufficiently validated; (3) the
fidelity of peer-tutoring interventions had not yet been examined carefully
enough; (4) few peer-tutoring procedures had been compared to alternative
teacher- or materials-mediated procedures; and (5) there were "no
commercially available peer-mediated curricula." As shown in the preceding
section on research support for peer and cross-age tutoring, many of these
concerns have since been laid to rest.
Another reason peer tutoring is still not
widely used may be that, as Damon and Phelps put it, "Virtually all
schooling, in this country and elsewhere, is structured around the traditional
belief that knowledge is best transmitted from adult to child in linear
fashion" (1989b, p. 136). All of the following have also been cited as
obstacles: tradition, teacher resistance, possible disadvantages accruing to
the tutor, possible tutor impatience, implications of tutor selection, parent
cautiousness, implications for school organization, variable suitability of
different subjects for peer tutoring, and possible lack of expertise on tutors'
parts.
Others have speculated that peer tutoring may
not be more widely used partly because of "the demands placed on teacher
time" (Giesecke, Cartledge, and Gardner 1993, p. 34). These authors note
that teachers may lack the skill to train their students properly to be tutors,
they may be concerned about possible disruptive behavior in tutoring pairs, and
they may question the quality of instruction offered by students, particularly
high-needs students (p. 34). Foot has also indicated that teachers tend to be
concerned about the time and effort needed to train tutors (1995).
Addressing
Obstacles
The above concerns need to be
addressed. Some questions reticent teachers and parents are likely to ask and
answers to those questions, in the context of literacy projects, have been
provided by Brice, Heath, and Mangiola (1991). They are paraphrased below:
Do tutors get something out of
tutoring that they don't get from "traditional" instruction? Students need both. Research on collaborative
learning shows that school achievement, creation of positive race relations,
and socialization are higher in cooperative (or peer) settings. "Both
mainstream and minority students show far greater increases in academic
achievement when they participate in collaborative learning projects than when
they remain in traditional teacher-focused classrooms" (pp. 54-55).
Since schools already demand so much
of teachers, why burden them with another responsibility? Teachers today are faced with extensive time and
energy demands, but cross-grade tutoring projects need teachers' involvement.
By acting as literate models, teachers can model behaviors that can be used by
students at home, for example, in helping siblings with homework. "The
promise that such forms of learning have for dealing with important and
pressing issues in the education of minority students should not--and, indeed,
cannot--be ignored for [when teachers integrate learning outside and inside the
school,] minority students move to academic competence" (p. 55).
How is literacy development through
cross-grade tutoring documented?
Although it is more difficult to assess cross-grade tutoring outcomes than more
traditional teacher-centered instruction outcomes, "[m]any agree that the
traditional ways of assessing students' learning--ascertaining whether students
can get the 'right answers' to close-ended questions--do not adequately account
for students' language competence" (p. 56). Teachers can observe and
interact with their students during tutoring and writing sessions and profile
changes in reading, talking, writing, and taking responsibility for learning.
Students themselves can also assess and describe their own growth.
Is it fair to tutees to use nonexpert
english speakers as tutors? Yes.
The older students must be trained to act as competent tutors, no matter what
their reading/writing level "through modeling, watching videotapes, and
discussing the activity and its meaning with teachers and other tutors . . .
tutors must understand that they have a responsibility for their tutees'
learning as well as their own." Research has shown that medium and low
achievers benefit more from collaborative learning than high achievers do,
while high achievers perform equally well in both learning environments.
"[I]f tutors are educated to see themselves as responsible and competent
models for their tutees, the younger students always benefit" (p. 54).
Implementing
Peer And Cross-Age Tutoring
Detailed discussion of
implementation is outside the scope of this report. However, a review of the
research reveals many readings that provide tips on how to implement peer and
cross-age tutoring. Gaustad summarizes key elements that schools and districts
should consider during planning and implementation of a peer tutoring program
(1992, pp. 14-21). Jenkins and Jenkins describe in detail the components of
successful peer tutoring programs, how to start a program, how to recruit and
schedule, etc. (1987, pp. 66-67). Systematic tutoring procedures are described
in a research review by Greenwood, Carta, and Hall (1988) and articles by Damon
and Phelps (1989a, pp. 153-155) and Berliner and Casanova (1988). Another
source of tips is The Peer Tutoring Handbook (Topping 1988). Several
authors have provided descriptions of tutoring systems that have been
successful. One is Reciprocal Tutoring, a program used with high-needs students
(Gartner and Riessman 1993, 1994). Reciprocal Tutoring programs "(1) give
all students the opportunity to be tutors and thereby learn through teaching,
and (2) have all tutors experience the tutee role as part of a tutoring
apprenticeship" (p. 58), as well as including teacher support groups.
Other descriptions include the following.
Martino (1994) describes prerequisites for a successful peer tutoring program
based on a high school program that has been in operation since 1991. Rosenthal
(1994) describes a cross-age science tutoring program. Brice, Heath, and
Magniola (1991) describe cross-age, interactive tutoring programs for
non-native, elementary English speakers in California and elementary students
in Texas, stressing reading and writing (pp. 20-29). Their appendix discusses
how to implement cross-grade tutoring projects (pp. 52-53). Walker (1989)
describes two sites in the South Carolina Cross-Age Tutoring Project that
"offer hope of becoming institutionalized."
Conclusion
Despite the obstacles noted
above, research provides extensive evidence supporting the use of peer and
cross-age tutoring. Achievement improves, and so do a host of social and
affective outcomes. Perhaps Damon and Phelps said it best:
Despite popular suspicions
about the dangers that "peer pressure" poses for youth, scientific
studies have left little doubt that peer relations can greatly benefit
children's social and intellectual development. The case for children's peer
relations has been made repeatedly and conclusively in developmental theory and
research . . . Repeated studies have shown that peer interaction is conducive,
perhaps even essential, to a host of important early achievements: children's
understanding of fairness, their self-esteem, their proclivities toward sharing
and kindness, their mastery of symbolic expression, their acquisition of
role-taking and communication skills, and their development of creative and
critical thinking. (1989a, p. 135)
Key
References
Britz, M. W.; Dixon, J.; and
McLaughlin, T. F.
"The
Effects of Peer Tutoring on Mathematics Performance: A Recent Review." B.
C. Journal Of Special Education 13/1 (1989): 17-33.
Reviews 1980-1989 study
findings concerning the effects of peer tutoring on the mathematics performance
of low achieving, mildly handicapped, or socially disadvantaged children.
Concludes that peer tutoring usually resulted in significant cognitive gains
for both the tutor and the tutee, while affective gains were not as conclusive.
Both peer and cross-age tutoring had some benefit for the tutee and frequently
the tutor.
Byrd, D. E.
"Peer
Tutoring With the Learning Disabled: A Critical Review." Journal of
Educational Research 84/2 (1990): 115-118.
Assesses three review
articles, six essays, and nine empirical studies about peer tutoring relating
to special education and LD students, most of which pertain to Greenwood, et
al.'s Classwide Peer Tutoring technique. Finds support for tutoring in each
study, including support for integration of LD students into the regular
classroom and beneficial effects on self-esteem, achievement and classroom
management.
Cardenas, J. A.; Harris, R.;
del Refugio Robledo, M.; and Supik, J. D.
Valued
Youth Program Dropout Prevention Strategies for At-Risk Students. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
American Education Research Association, Chicago, IL, April 1991.
Describes the Coca-Cola
Valued Youth Program, in which limited-English-proficient, middle school
children at risk of dropping out became paid cross-age tutors of elementary
students. Presents findings that tutors were more likely than controls to stay
in school and to have improved reading grades, increased self-esteem, and
improved attitudes toward school.
Cohen, P. A., and Kulik, J.
A.
"Synthesis
of Research on the Effects of Tutoring." Educational Leadership
39/3 (1981): 226-227.
Briefly describes a
meta-analysis of 65 objective, comparative studies of tutoring located through
computer searches. Effects on both tutors and tutees were positive in the areas
of learning, attitude toward subject matter, and self-concept, although
self-concept outcomes were small, especially for tutees. (See below.)
Cohen, P. A.; Kulik, J. A.;
and Kulik, C. C.
"Educational
Outcomes of Tutoring: A Meta-Analysis of Findings." American
Educational Research Journal 19/2 (1982): 237-248.
Describes meta-analysis of 65
studies of tutoring winnowed down from 500 titles found through computer
searching. To be included, studies had to (1) take place in actual elementary
or secondary classrooms, (2) report on quantitative outcomes of tutored and
nontutored control groups, and (3) be free of methodological flaws. Fifty-two
of the 65 studies described program effects on examination scores. Thirty of
these concerned reading, 18 concerned math, and four concerned other subject
matter. The meta-analysis showed that the average TUTEE scored at the 66th
percentile of untutored (control group) students (in other words, the effect
size or ES was .4). A smaller but significant effect (ES = .29) occurred for
tutees' attitudes toward subject matter (measured in eight studies). A very
small and nonsignificant effect (ES = .09) occurred for tutees' self concepts
(measured in nine studies). The effects on TUTORS were measured in 38 of the 65
studies. The average ES for academic outcomes was .33, for attitudes toward
subjects it was .42, and for self concept it was .18. Achievement effects were
stronger for both tutors and tutees in math, and stronger for tutees in more
structured programs of shorter duration, and when lower-level skills were
taught and tested on locally developed examinations.
Damon, W., and Phelps, E.
"Three
Approaches of Peer Learning and Their Educational Uses." Paper presented
at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New
Orleans, LA, April 1988.
Indicates three approaches to
peer learning: peer tutoring, cooperative peer learning, and peer
collaboration, and the degrees of equality and mutuality of interaction of
each. Peer tutoring is low on equality, while peer collaboration is high, and
cooperative learning is usually high. Peer tutoring and cooperative learning
are variable on mutuality of interaction, while peer collaboration is high.
Damon, W., and Phelps, E.
"Strategic
Uses of Peer Learning in Children's Education." Peer Relationships in
Child Development, edited by T. J. Berndt and G. W. Ladd. New York: John
Wiley and Sons, 1989b, 135-157.
Describes in detail the
differences among peer tutoring, cooperative learning, and peer collaboration.
Reports results of a two-year longitudinal study of 164 fourth and fifth
graders. Children in experimental peer collaboration pairs performed
significantly better on ratio, proportion, and perspective-taking tasks on
immediate and delayed posttests. Offers a detailed vision of the ideal
educational atmosphere--a mix of peer and adult instructional techniques.
Foot, H. C.
Personal
Communication, January 24, 1995: "If a teacher has ANY concern, it's
usually more associated with the time and effort necessary for adequate
training." (See: Foot, H. C. and Kleinberg. "Training Children as
Peer Tutors." Topic 10 (1993): 1-6.)
Foot, H. C.; Morgan, M. J.;
and Shute, R. H.
"Children's
Helping Relationships: An Overview." In Children Helping Children,
edited by H. C. Foot, M. J. Morgan, and R. H. Shute. New York: John Wiley and
Sons, 1990, 3-17.
Differentiates among three
main approaches to "peer cooperation"--peer tutoring, peer
collaboration, and cooperative learning--and defines each.
Foot, H. C.; Shute, R. H.;
Morgan, M. J.; and Barron, A.
"Theoretical
Issues in Peer Tutoring." In Children Helping Children, edited by
H. C. Foot, M. J. Morgan, and R. H. Shute. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1990,
65-92.
Discusses children's
interaction with other children vs. adults and how it leads to cognitive
development, based in part on the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky. Reviews peer
tutoring research with particular emphasis on (1) the child's perception of
tutoring roles, (2) children's teaching strategies, and (3) tutors' sensitivity
to the needs of learners.
Gorrell, J., and Keel, L.
"A
Field Study of Helping Relationships in a Cross-age Tutoring Program." Elementary
School Guidance and Counseling 20/4 (1986): 268-276.
Presents eight categories of
significant behaviors found in a field study of 24 pairs of eighth grade tutors
and first grade tutees in a university laboratory school: on-task behavior,
prompting and guiding, praise and encouragement, adjusting to the child's
needs, managing behavior problems, allowing autonomous performance, bonding and
cooperation.
Greenwood, C. R.
"Classwide
Peer Tutoring: Longitudinal Effects on the Reading, Language, and Mathematics
Achievement of At-Risk Students." Reading, Writing And Learning
Disabilities 7/2 (1991): 105-123.
Describes how Classwide Peer
Tutoring (CWPT) puts effective instructional variables into practice and how it
improves academic achievement. The effective instructional variables CWPT
utilizes are: engaged time, time management success rate or successful
completion of tasks, academic learning time, monitoring, structuring and
questioning. Reports findings that CWPT, when systematically applied to oral
reading, spelling and arithmetic facts, increased students' performance on
standardized measures of reading, language and mathematics. Discusses two CWPT
drawbacks: first, that most of the evidence of its effectiveness is in the
realm of acquisition of rote skills and second, that the content for tutoring
sessions must be developed or adapted by the teacher.
Greenwood, C. R.; Carta, J.
J.; and Hall, V.
"The
Use of Peer Tutoring Strategies in Classroom Management and Educational
Instruction." School Psychology Review 17/2 (1988): 258-275.
Presents five limitations of
the small number of effective and research-validated classroom intervention
procedures for use with particular classroom situations and problems. Posits
peer-oriented procedures for instruction and behavior management that have
emerged in the last ten years and surmount these limitations. Discusses the
differences between peer-influence and peer-mediated strategies and the
benefits of both. Lists four potential problems/concerns related to the use of
peer procedures. Lists the purposes and goals of peer tutoring strategies.
Describes systematic tutoring procedures and recent advances. Indicates
limitations and areas in need of future research and implications.
Greenwood, C. R.; Carta, J.
J.; and Kamps, D.
"Teacher-Mediated
Versus Peer-Mediated Instruction: A Review of Educational Advantages and
Disadvantages." In Children Helping Children, edited by H. C.
Foot, M. J. Morgan, and R. H. Shute. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1990,
177-205.
Reviews a variety of studies
and concludes that peer-mediated strategies are as effective as, or more
effective than, the traditional teacher-mediated practices to which they were
compared, with regular and special education students and across a variety of
subject areas. Cautions that peer-mediated approaches entail additional costs,
responsibilities, and ethical concerns, which, however, the authors believe to
be well worth it compared with the costs of many alternatives that are
"teacher- or computer-mediated."
Greenwood, C. R.; Delquardi,
J. C.; and Hall, R. V.
"Longitudinal
Effects of Classwide Peer Tutoring." Journal Of Educational Psychology
81/3 (1989): 371-383.
Describes a four-year
longitudinal study of a Classwide Peer Tutoring (CWPT) program in which pairs
of low-SES children are assigned to one of two competing teams, and tutor and
tutee roles are reversed in every session. Tutees win points for their teams,
which in turn win social rewards. These low-SES, elementary school, Chapter 1
students scored from .5 to 1.4 grade equivalents higher than the low-SES
students who were not in the CWPT program on standardized reading, mathematics,
and language arts tests. These differences were statistically significant.
Hedin, D.
"Students
as Teachers: A Tool for Improving School." Social Policy 17/3
(1987): 42-47.
Reviews peer and cross-age
tutoring in terms of (1) current use; (2) expected benefits to tutors, tutees,
teachers and society; (3) research on academic and affective outcomes for
tutors and tutees; and (4) tips for expanding the use of peer tutoring.
Imich, A. J.
"Pupil
Tutoring: The Development of Internality and Improved School Attendance."
In Children Helping Children, edited by H. C. Foot, M. J. Morgan, and
R. H. Shute. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1990, 93-115.
Discusses results showing
that peer tutoring may lead to a more internal vs. external locus of control
and to improved school attendance. Discusses possible theoretical reasons for these
findings.
Levin, H. M.; Glass, G. V.;
and Meister, G. R.
"Cost-Effectiveness
of Computer-Assisted Instruction." Evaluation Review 11/1 (1987):
50-72.
Presents findings of a
comparison of the cost-effectiveness of CAI, peer tutoring, reducing class size
and increasing the length of the school day. Peer tutoring is more
cost-effective than CAI, and both are more cost-effective than reducing class
size or increasing the length of the school day. Effect size (generated by
achievement test standard deviation units) and cost were both taken into
account.
Maheady, L.; Mallette, B.;
Levin, H.; and Harper, G. F.
"Accommodating
Cultural, Linguistic and Academic Diversity." Preventing School
Failure 36/1 (1991): 28-31.
Describes the Classwide Peer
Tutoring (CWPT) approach of Delquardi, Greenwood, Whorton, Carta, and Hall
(1986). Lists studies which have shown its effectiveness across different
subject areas, age levels and instructional settings, all of which were
conducted with at-risk students serving as tutors and tutees. Also describes
the Classwide Student Tutoring Teams (CSTT) approach, a combination of CWPT and
Slavin's Team-Games-Tournament approach. Cites studies showing that CSTT
students' weekly math quiz scores increased by approximately 20 percentage
points.
Maheady, L.; Sacca, M. K.;
and Harper, G. F.
"Classwide
Peer Tutoring With Mildly Handicapped High School Students." Exceptional
Children 55/1 (1988): 52-59.
Reports effects of Classwide
Peer Tutoring (CWPT) on the academic performance of 14 mildly handicapped and
36 nondisabled students in three tenth grade social studies classes. Randomly
assigned tutor-tutee pairs, belonging to one of two teams, quizzed each other
verbally using study guides and took written weekly quizzes for points for their
teams. Quiz scores changed from approximately 70 percent during baseline, for
both handicapped and nonhandicapped students, to approximately 90 percent for
both groups, and far fewer failures overall in this ABAB experimental design.
Mathur, S. R., and
Rutherford, R. B.
"Peer
Mediated Interventions Promoting Social Skills of Children and Youth With
Behavioral Disorders." Education And Treatment Of Children 14/3
(1991): 227-242.
Reviews 21 articles about
peer-mediated interventions and their success in promoting social skills in
children and youth with behavioral disorders, and finds that these approaches
have immediate, positive treatment effects, that typologies of these treatments
have been identified, and that there is a lack of evidence supporting
generalization across settings and regarding maintenance of effects.
McLaughlin, T. F., and Vacha,
E. F.
"School
Programs for At-Risk Children and Youth: A Review." Education and
Treatment of Children 15/3 (1992): 255-267.
Reviews and evaluates literature
regarding a variety of programs that assist at-risk students. Classwide
tutoring (as well as other models) was found to be effective in "assisting
the education of at-risk children and youth." One program involved using
middle-school students to tutor elementary school Chapter 1 students. Tutors
who received weekly training gained .49 standard deviations in math on the
Metropolitan Achievement Test over untrained tutors. Tutees gained .93 standard
deviations.
Palincsar, A. S., and Brown,
A. L.
"Interactive
Teaching to Promote Independent Learning From Text." The Reading
Teacher 39/8 (1986): 771-777.
Describes "reciprocal
teaching," in which adults and students take turns assuming the role of
teacher using four comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring
strategies: predicting, question generating, summarizing, and clarifying.
Seventy-one percent of students in six remedial middle school teachers' classes
achieved 70 percent accuracy on criterion measures for four out of five days,
while 19 percent of control students did, when tutored by four of the best
students in each class.
Rekrut, M. D.
Teaching
To Learn: Cross-Age Tutoring To Enhance Strategy Acquisition. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA, April 1992.
Examines tutoring as a
pedagogical tool to enhance tutor learning. High school students learned story
grammar strategies and either did or did not teach these to fourth and fifth
graders twice a week for six weeks. The group that tutored did significantly
better on story grammar posttests.
Slavin, R. E.; Karweit, N.
L.; and Wasik, B. A.
Preventing
Early School Failure: What Works?
Report No. 26. Baltimore, MD: Center for Research on Effective Schooling for
Disadvantaged Students, 1991.
Summarizes research on the
impacts of alternative early intervention programs to prevent school failure,
examines the magnitude of estimates of program effects, and discusses policy
implications of using the alternative approaches. Nine types of early schooling
programs were reviewed: substantial reduction in class size, provision of
instructional aides in the early grades, preschool for four-year-olds,
extended-day kindergarten, retention in kindergarten and first grade, provision
of transitional first grade or developmental kindergarten, Writing to Read,
one-to-one tutoring by teachers or paraprofessionals, and Success for All.
Concludes that the most effective strategies preventing early school failure
are programs that involve one-to-one tutoring in reading for first graders,
especially in structured models that use well-trained certified teachers as
tutors.
Slavin, R. E., and Madden, N.
A.
"What
Works for Students at Risk: A Research Synthesis." Educational
Leadership 46/5 (1989): 4-13.
Discusses results of
reviewing research on "every imaginable approach designed to increase
student reading and mathematics achievement in the early grades" (p. 5).
Concludes that continuous-progress programs and cooperative-learning approaches
are the most effective classroom change programs, and that remedial-tutoring
and CAI programs are the most effective supplementary remedial programs.
Staub, D., and Hunt, P.
"The
Effects of Social Interaction Training on High School Peer Tutors of Schoolmates
with Severe Disabilities." Exceptional Children 60/1 (1993):
41-57.
Demonstrates that volunteer,
peer, high school tutors can increase their rate of social initiation toward
and interaction with severely disabled peers, and thereby increase targeted social
behaviors in those peers, after relevant training. Eight tutors (four trained
and four controls) worked with four severely disabled students. Trained tutors
had significantly higher rates of social interaction with tutees than did
controls.
Swengel, E. M.
"Cutting
Education's Gordian Knot." Phi Delta Kappan 72/5 (1991): 704-710.
Proposes "Mutual
Instruction" (MI) as a more descriptive term than peer and cross-age
tutoring and counseling. Proposes that the basic instructional unit of
teacher-and-class has been the fundamental problem with formal schooling for
thousands of years and proposes MI as the solution. Says that MI provides, in
an integrated way, four elements identified by Walberg and Bloom (1984) as
contributing most to mastery learning: reinforcement, acceleration, reading
training, and cues and feedback. Describes how to restructure a school for MI.
Trapani, C., and Gettinger,
M.
"Effects
of Social Skills Training and Cross-Age Tutoring on Academic Achievement and
Social Behaviors of Boys with Learning Disabilities." Journal Of
Research And Development In Education 22/4 (1989): 1-9.
Compares Test of Written
Spelling (TWS), Walker Problem Behavior Identification Checklist (WPBIC), and
observed social communication skills of three groups of six or seven boys each.
One group received social skills training and tutoring, another received only
social skills training, and the last served as a comparison group. The group
receiving both treatments performed better on the TWS and on the observed behaviors
of greeting and answering questions, but not on the WPBIC or other observed
behaviors.
Webb, N. M.
"Peer
Interaction and Learning in Small Groups." In Peer Interaction,
Problem-Solving And Cognition: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, edited by
N. M. Webb. New York: Pergamon Press, 1989, 21-29.
Discusses two kinds of peer
interaction in small groups--(1) level of elaboration of help given and
received and (2) appropriateness of responses to requests for help--and their
relationship to student achievement. Presents a model of peer interaction and
learning in small groups. Lists the six conditions required for help received
by peers to be effective. Lists factors which have been shown to influence
student interactive behavior (student ability, gender, personality, and group
composition by ability and gender). Hypothesizes that student interactive
behavior is influenced by the group's perception about the locus of control of
the student needing help, the size of the group, the reward structure, and the task
structure.
Wheldall, K., and Colmar, S.
"Peer
Tutoring for Low-Progress Readers Using 'Pause, Prompt and Praise'." In Children
Helping Children, edited by H. C. Foot, M. J. Morgan, and R. H. Shute. New
York: John Wiley and Sons, 1990, 117-134.
Argues for using peers for
reading tutoring because 1) parents may not always be available or appropriate
tutors; (2) peer tutors are plentiful, available for training and can be
readily monitored and organized; (3) low-progress readers respond readily to
peer tutors; and (4) tutoring is beneficial to tutors and increases their
caring for others. Describes original study and four replication studies of
"Pause, Prompt and Praise" method, and concludes that peers can learn
to use the method's procedures quickly and easily, tutors can gain reading
skill from using it, and low-progress readers gain a great deal by being
tutored with it. Average or better readers, meanwhile, do just as well if they
simply have someone hear them read regularly. Emphasizes the importance of
teacher training in the method.
Wheldall, K. and Mettem, P.
"Behavioral
Peer Tutoring: Training 16-year-old Tutors to Employ the 'Pause, Prompt, and
Praise' Method With 12-year-old Remedial Readers." Educational
Psychology 5/1 (1985): 27-44.
Describes the "Pause,
Prompt, and Praise" method in which the tutor delays attention to a
reader's error for at least five seconds or until the end of a sentence, uses
prompts rather than straightforward corrections, and praises the tutee.
Describes results of a study of this method. After just 60 minutes of tutor
training, tutors used the method well and tutees had finished 36 levels of a
graded reading program, while tutees working with untrained tutors had finished
just 29, and students reading silently had finished 24. In addition, tutees who
were tutored using "Pause, Prompt and Praise" gained over six months
in reading accuracy in two months compared with a one-month gain for the silent
readers. Two months after the study ended, these students still showed substantial,
though not statistically significant, gains on a comprehension test.
General
References
Anliker, J. A.; Drake, L. T.;
Pacholski, J.; and Little, W.
"Impacts
of a Multi-Layered Nutritional Education Program: Teenagers Teaching
Children." Journal Of Nutrition Education 25/3 (1993): 140-143.
Describes an experimental
study in which two groups of teens, ages 14-17, tutored children in nutrition
for a summer. There were significantly greater gains for the 30 tutored
children than for the 19 comparison children.
Barbetta, P. M.; Miller, A.
D.; Peters, M. T.; Heron, T. E.; and Cochran, L. L.
"Tugmate:
A Cross-Age Tutoring Program to Teach Sight Vocabulary." Education And
Treatment Of Young Children 14/1 (1991): 19-37.
Conveys the results of a six-week
program of tutoring for six elementary tutees by six high school tutors. Tutees
acquired and maintained a substantial number of new sight vocabulary words
after tutoring and maintained words up to four months following instruction.
Bartz, D., and Miller, L. K.
12
Teaching Methods To Enhance Student Learning. (Report No. ISBN-0-8106-1093-0). Washington, DC: National Education
Association, 1991 (ED 340 686).
Provides brief research
overviews of 12 teaching methods that have a sound theoretical basis, have
demonstrated a positive impact on student learning, and have a substantial
research base. One of these is peer tutoring. Its cost effectiveness, key
factors in effectiveness of tutors, and several advantages of peer tutoring are
discussed.
Benard, B.
The
Case For Peers. Portland, OR:
Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 1990.
Advocates a "peer
resource model of education," i.e., programs such as youth service,
cooperative learning, peer tutoring, cross-age tutoring, peer helping, peer
mediation, peer leadership, and youth involvement. Briefly reviews seven ways
in which research indicates that peer relationships contribute to a child's
social and cognitive development. Discusses the importance of social support to
positive outcomes and details the many research-based positive outcomes of peer
resource programs.
Berliner, D., and Casanova,
U.
"Peer
Tutoring: A New Look at a Popular Practice." Instructor 97/5
(1988): 14-15.
Berliner reviews a study by
Levin, Glass, and Meister (1987) which showed that tutoring was more
cost-effective than reduced class size, increased instructional time, and CAI.
Casanova discusses five steps needed to implement a successful tutoring
program: class preparation, selection of tutors, preparation of tutors, monitoring
by the teacher, and continuous assessment of student progress.
Bland, M., and Harris, G.
"Peer
Tutoring." School Science Review 71/255 (1989): 142-144.
Traces peer tutoring back to
the "Monitorial System" of the early nineteenth century, which consisted
of a "wave-like delivery of the subject matter through monitors instructed
by a single teacher" (p. 142). Describes lessons conducted by the science
department at a community school with its third-year chemistry classes working
in pairs of more- and less-able students (as defined by departmental profiles).
Concludes that these lessons were "of a superior quality" (p. 144) in
terms of students' learning, motivation and enjoyment. Indicates availability
of videotapes of trial lessons.
Cazden, C. B.
"Classroom
Discourse." In Handbook Of Research On Teaching, 3d edition,
edited by M. C. Wittrock. New York: MacMillan, 1986, 450-451.
Discusses differences between
the communication of teachers teaching students and tutors teaching students.
Damon, W., and Phelps, E.
"Critical
Distinctions Among Three Approaches." In Peer Interaction,
Problem-Solving, And Cognition: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, edited by
N. M. Webb. New York: Pergamon Press, 1989a, 9-19.
Discusses the relative levels
of equality (in which both parties in an engagement take direction from one
another rather than one party unilaterally directing the other) and mutuality
of engagement (in which the discourse is extensive, intimate and
"connected") in peer tutoring, cooperative learning, and peer
collaboration. Concludes that peer collaboration has high levels of both, while
cooperative learning is high in equality but not mutuality, and peer tutoring
has a low level of equality and a varied amount of mutuality. Contrasts peer
approaches with "guided participation" and recommends peer discourse
as a useful supplement to effective adult teaching.
Dinwiddie, G.
An
Assessment Of The Functional Relationship Between Classwide Peer Tutoring And
Students' Academic Performance.
Doctoral dissertation submitted to the Department of Human Development and
Family Life and the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Kansas,
October 8, 1986.
Describes study results
indicating that spelling, math and reading achievement of both average and low-ability
inner city, second grade students was greater in a year-long Classwide Peer
Tutoring condition in which students earned points for their teams. However, no
comparison group was used. Better outcomes for tutees were related to quality
and intensity of peer tutoring.
Dohrn, E., and Bryan, T.
"Attribution
Instruction." Teaching Exceptional Children 27/4 1994): 61-63.
Outlines a nine-step system
for using peer or cross-age tutoring to teach the "acquisition of
self-referent thoughts" (for a more internal locus of control) on the part
of learning disabled students, which, according to other studies referenced by
the authors, lead to greater academic achievement gains.
Doise, W.
"The
Development of Individual Competencies Through Social Interaction." In Children
Helping Children, edited by H. C. Foot, M. J. Morgan, and R. H. Shute. New
York: John Wiley and Sons, 1990, 43-64.
Presents a theoretical
framework of the links between social interaction and the cognitive and social
development mechanisms of coordination of interdependent actions,
socio-cognitive conflict, and "social marking" (correspondence
between social relations and cognitive [Piagetian] operations on properties of
objects).
DuPaul, G. J, and Henningson,
P. N.
"Peer
Tutoring Effects on the Classroom Performance of Children With Attention
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder." School Psychology Review 22/1
(1993): 134-143.
Describes a study in which
Classwide Peer Tutoring caused one student with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD) to show improved attention to instruction, a lower
task-irrelevant activity level, and increased acquisition of mathematics skills
after two baseline periods.
Fantuzzo, J. W.; Riggio, R.
E.; Connely, S.; and Dimeff, L. A.
"Effects
of Reciprocal Peer Tutoring on Academic Achievement and Psychological
Adjustment: A Component Analysis." Journal Of Educational Psychology
81/2 (1989): 173-177.
Presents results of a study
of the dyad and structure (prescribed format) components of the Reciprocal Peer
Tutoring (RPT) strategy as experienced by 100 undergraduate college students.
Both the dyad and structure components of RPT were determined to significantly
impact comprehensive examination scores.
Fontana, D.
"Where
Do We Go From Here? A Personal View By An Educationalist." In Children
Helping Children, edited by H. C. Foot, M. J. Morgan, and R. H. Shute. New
York: John Wiley and Sons, 1990, 375-388.
Acknowledges peer tutoring
benefits and discusses reasons why peer tutoring isn't more widely used,
including inherited tradition and teacher resistance--which may be partly based
on seeing peer tutoring as a substitute for properly organized teacher
activity. Cautions against urgent advocacy of peer tutoring for reasons
including possible disadvantages accruing to the tutor, possible tutor
impatience, implications of tutor selection, parent cautiousness, implications
for school organization, variable suitability of different subjects for peer
tutoring, possible lack of expertise on tutors' parts, etc.
Fowler, S. A.
"Peer
Monitoring and Self-Monitoring: Alternatives to Traditional Teacher
Management." Exceptional Children 52/6 (1986): 573-581.
Reports findings of a study
in which ten children in a special kindergarten class learned to use peer- and
self-monitoring to decrease disruption and nonparticipation during transition
activities. Inappropriate behaviors among three target children decreased.
Fresko, B., and Chen, M.
"Ethnic
Similarity, Tutor Expertise, and Tutor Satisfaction in Cross-Age
Tutoring." American Educational Research Journal 26/1 (1989):
122-140.
Reports the results of a
survey study of the effects of tutor-tutee ethnic similarity, tutor expertise
and perceived goal attainment on the satisfaction of 425 college student tutors
of disadvantaged elementary children. The major factor directly influencing
satisfaction was the extent to which tutors felt they had achieved project
goals, not tutor-tutee ethnic similarity or tutor expertise factors.
Gartner, A., and Riessman, F.
"Peer
Tutoring: Toward a New Model." ERIC Digest. Washington, DC: ERIC
Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Education, August 1993.
Cites studies of the
effectiveness of tutoring on tutor gains as a rationale for the Reciprocal
Tutoring approach. Describes this approach and says that support of
administrators and school-based management teams is crucial.
Gartner, A., and Riessman, F.
"Tutoring
Helps Those Who Give, Those Who Receive." Educational Leadership
52/3 (1994): 58-60.
Describes a study funded by
the Kellogg Foundation in which six New York high schools were test sites for
Reciprocal Tutoring. Describes Reciprocal Tutoring, which may be either
cross-age or within-grade (with roles of tutor and tutee alternated).
Gaustad, J.
"Peer
and Cross-Age Tutoring." ERIC Digest 79. Eugene, OR: ERIC
Clearinghouse on Educational Management, March 1993.
Describes the benefits of
one-to-one tutoring, several peer and cross-age tutoring programs, what makes
tutoring effective, problems that are commonly encountered, and elements necessary
for a successful program.
Gaustad, J.
"Tutoring
for At-Risk Students." OSSC Bulletin 36/3 (1992).
Explores the reasons for the
effectiveness of tutoring, particularly for at-risk students; examines
representative tutoring programs; and summarizes key elements that schools and
districts should consider during planning and implementation of a peer tutoring
program.
Giesecke, D.; Cartledge, G.;
and Gardner, R.
"Low-Achieving
Students as Successful Cross-Age Tutors." Preventing School Failure
37/3 (1993): 34-43.
Further validates the
positive effects of peer tutoring, particularly as they relate to low-achieving
students as tutors. Four tutees correctly identified more sight words after a
six-week tutoring program than they had before the program.
Goldstein, H., and Wickstrom,
S.
"Peer
Intervention Effects on Communicative Interaction Among Handicapped and
Nonhandicapped Pre-schoolers." Journal Of Applied Behavior Analysis
19/2 (1986): 209-214.
Two preschool children
"at or above age level" were assigned as "confederates" and
taught strategies to facilitate interaction with three language-delayed peers.
All three handicapped children exhibited higher interaction rates over the
course of 75 weeks.
Heath, S. B., and Mangiola,
L.
Children
Of Promise: Literate Activity In Linguistically And Culturally Diverse
Classrooms. NEA School Restructuring
Series. Washington, DC: National Education Association, 1991.
Describes "literate
activity" in linguistically and culturally diverse classrooms, and more
specifically, describes cross-age, interactive tutoring programs for
non-native, elementary English speakers in California and elementary students
in Texas. Appendix lists steps for implementing cross-grade tutoring projects
in literacy. Provides list of several oft-raised questions about cross-grade
tutoring and answers to them.
Hertz-Lazarowitz, R., and
Miller, N.
Interaction
In Cooperative Groups. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Examines developmental
foundations and social construction of knowledge and social skills, classroom
factors influencing peer interactions, effects of task and reward structure on
academic achievement, and factors influencing the promotion of positive
intergroup relations. Provides recommendations for application of the research.
Jenkins, J. R., and Jenkins,
L. M.
"Making
Peer Tutoring Work." Educational Leadership 44/6 (1987): 64-68.
Describes in detail the
components of successful peer tutoring programs, how to start a program, how to
recruit and schedule, etc.
Kalkowski, M.
How
Cooperative Learning Theory Was Transformed Into Practice In The Project For
The Implementation Of Cooperative Learning (Pficl): A Qualitative Case Study. Doctoral dissertation submitted to the School of
Education and the Committee on Graduate Studies of Stanford University, August
1992.
Describes a case study of a
site implementing cooperative learning in which seven transformations of
cooperative learning, as it is described in the research literature, were
observed in practice. Chapter 2 (pp. 8-36) defines cooperative learning and
summarizes cooperative learning theory and research.
Kohler, F. W.
Classwide
Peer Tutoring: Examining Natural Contingencies Of Peer Reinforcement. Doctoral thesis submitted to the Department of Human
Development and Family Life and the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Kansas, December 1986.
Describes three supportive
behaviors exhibited by third grade tutors that were not taught to them as part
of the Classwide Peer Tutoring procedure: "go faster prompts,"
"praise" and "help" (in which tutors correctly spell words
misspelled by tutees). These behaviors increased academic response rates of
three tutees and academic gains by one student whose weekly achievement was analyzed.
Kohler, F. W., and Strain, P.
S.
"Peer-Assisted
Interventions: Early Promises, Notable Achievements, and Future
Aspirations." Clinical Psychology Review 10/4 (1990): 441-452.
Lists four types of
peer-assisted interventions reported within the educational and applied behavior
analysis literature: peer management of nonacademic social behavior, peer
academic tutoring, peer skill modeling, and group-oriented contingencies (e.g.,
cooperative learning). Concludes that the literature indicates "some
evidence of effectiveness, but little documentation of procedural
practicality" (p. 441).
Lazerson, D. B.; Foster, H.
L.; Brown, S. I.; and Hummel, J. W.
"The
Effectiveness of Cross-Age Tutoring with Truant, Junior High School Students
with Learning Disabilities." Journal Of Learning Disabilities
21/4 (1988): 253-255.
Reports results of a study of
16 truant and tardy junior high school students with learning disabilities who
were used as tutors for younger, learning-disabled students. After six weeks of
tutoring, they all made significant gains in locus of control and most showed
decreased truancy and tardiness.
Martino, L. R.
"Peer
Tutoring Classes for Young Adolescents: A Cost-Effective Strategy." Middle
School Journal 25/4 (1994): 55-58.
Describes a peer tutoring
program begun at a high school three years prior to the article. Lists
prerequisites of a successful tutoring program. Includes several program
documents: teacher referral form, parent/student contract, and peer tutoring
guide.
Miller, L.; Kohler, F. W.;
Kohler, H. E.; Hoel, K.; and Strain, P. S.
"Winning
With Peer Tutoring: A Teacher's Guide." Preventing School Failure
37/3 (1993): 14-18.
Briefly reviews positive
academic outcomes and social benefits of peer tutoring and describes a
systematic process for teachers to use to plan, implement and maintain a peer
tutoring intervention.
Pigott, H. E.; Fantuzzo, J.
W.; and Clement, P. W.
"The
Effects of Reciprocal Peer Tutoring and Group Contingencies on the Academic
Performance of Elementary School Children." Journal Of Applied
Behavior Analysis 19/1 (1986): 93-98.
Reports the results of study
of 12 underachieving fifth graders who were selected based on low arithmetic
performance to serve as reciprocal peer tutoring group trainers. In these
groups of four, "peer tutoring operations" were equated with group
roles. In addition, reward contingencies were in place. Thus the intervention
is perhaps best called "cooperative learning" rather than peer
tutoring. The intervention increased the students' arithmetic performance
"to a level indistinguishable from their classmates" during treatment
and 12 weeks later, and their "peer affiliation" with other group
members increased.
Raschke, D.; Dedrick, C.;
Strathe, M.; Yoder, M.; and Kirkland, G.
"Cross-Age
Tutorials and Attitudes of Kindergartners Toward Older Students." Teacher
Educator 23/4 (1988): 10-18.
Presents results of a study
in which 70 kindergarten students were assigned to either a cross-age tutoring
program utilizing sixth grade tutors (for weekly, one-hour exchanges) or to a
comparison group. Those in the tutoring program showed significantly more
positive attitude growth toward older students than the nontutored group.
Riessman, F.
"A
Self-Help Reform Model." Education Week 13/11 (November 17,
1993): 1.
Suggests and briefly
describes an "institutional self-help model" in which older students
earn credit for tutoring younger ones. Bases this suggestion on the
effectiveness and low cost of tutoring.
Rosenthal, S.
"Students
as Teachers." Thrust For Educational Leadership 23/6 (1994):
36-38.
Describes a cross-age
tutoring program in which at-risk high school students tutored fourth graders
using the SERIES (Science Experiences and Resources for Informal Education
Settings) curriculum.
Stirton, M.
Personal
Communication, January 23, 1995. "Teachers need to spend time training
their student tutors and tutees if the program is to function effectively. This
training can be integrated into the language arts portion of the curriculum so
that it will enhance and give validity to the curriculum. In our program, the
older children, tutors, write lesson plans and maintain a log. The younger
children, tutees, write or draw what they did during their meetings with the
tutors. During the meetings, the children read and discuss the literature and
then write about it. There is nothing that they do that is extra and that does
not apply to language arts or that could not be expanded to cover other areas
of the curriculum."
Strayhorn, J. M., Jr.;
Strain, P. S.; and Walker, H. M.
"The
Case for Interaction Skills Training in the Context of Tutoring as Preventative
Mental Health Intervention in Schools." Behavioral Disorders 19/1
(1993): 11-26.
Hypothesizes that peer
tutoring as a training ground for relationship and academic skills would create
better-adjusted children who would grow into better-adjusted adults, based on
studies showing that exposure to warm social contact, and particularly peer
acceptance, suppresses symptoms of psychological problems, and vice versa.
Thorkildsen, T. A.
"Justice
in the Classroom: The Student's View." Child Development 60/2
(1989): 323-334.
Presents the results of
interviews of students aged 6-29 concerning the relative fairness of five
commonly used classroom practices. Peer tutoring was judged as fairer than:
fast workers working ahead (acceleration), fast workers sitting and waiting,
fast workers using the computer for enrichment, and all students "moving
on" although the slowest students never finish their work. Older students,
however, saw peer tutoring as less fair than younger students, and acceleration
and enrichment as more fair.
Thorkildsen, T. A.
"Those
Who Can, Tutor: High-Ability Students' Conceptions of Fair Ways to Organize
Learning." Journal Of Educational Psychology 85/1 (1993): 182-190.
Investigates high-ability and
comparison students' views of the relative fairness of acceleration for faster
learners, peer tutoring, faster students waiting for slower students to catch
up, faster learners setting the pace for instruction, and enrichment for faster
learners. Judged fairest was abler students tutoring the less able.
Thurston, J. K.
"Art
Partners: A New Focus on Peer Teaching." School Arts 94/1 (1994):
41-42.
Describes implementation of
cross-age tutoring in which high school students tutor elementary students in
art in 16 classes on a biweekly basis. Provides anecdotal evidence of the
program's success.
Topping, K.
The
Peer Tutoring Handbook: Promoting Cooperative Learning. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books, 1988.
Discusses the history of
tutoring, how to organize and implement a program, effectiveness research, and
how to evaluate a project.
Vacc, N. N., and Cannon S. J.
"Cross-Age
Tutoring in Mathematics: Sixth Graders Helping Students Who are Moderately
Handicapped." Education And Training In Mental Retardation 26/1
(1991): 89-97.
Examines the effects of a
six-week, cross-age tutoring program on four moderately mentally handicapped
elementary students' mathematics learning. Tutees' mathematics skills increased
during the program, but maintenance of or improvement in mathematics skills
varied two years later. The sixth grade tutors' attitudes toward their mentally
handicapped peers improved.
Wagner, L.
"Social
and Historical Perspectives on Peer Teaching and Education." In Children
Helping Children, edited by H. C. Foot, M. J. Morgan, and R. H. Shute. New
York: John Wiley and Sons, 1990, 21-42.
Traces the historical origins
of peer tutoring in Western civilization back to Greece in the first century
A.D. and through Rome, Germany, other European locales and finally America.
Relates changes in peer teaching to prevalent social, economic and political
influences.
Wagner, L.
Peer
Teaching: Historical Perspectives.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982.
The eight chapters of this
book discuss the history of peer teaching in detail, each covering one of the
following topics, respectively: peer teaching from Greek and Roman times to the
close of the Renaissance, the seventeenth century use of peer teaching, peer
teaching in the eighteenth century and educational transition to the nineteenth
century, developments in nineteenth century England, peer teaching in Europe in
the nineteenth century, development of peer teaching in North America in the
nineteenth century, use of peer teaching in Latin America in the nineteenth
century, and twentieth century developments in theory and practice of peer
teaching in the United States.
Walker, D.
Peer
Mediated Instruction Between Autistic Students: Tutor Training And Tutor
Effectiveness. Masters thesis
submitted to the Department of Human Development and Family Life and the
Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Kansas, May 10, 1985.
Reports results of training
an autistic student to peer tutor. The tutor learned seven tutoring steps. These
skills generalized to other tasks. The tutee also exhibited learning of three
"prevocational tasks."
Walker, W.
"'I
Love Helping These Students Out on Their Reading': The Cross-Age Tutoring
Project." Bread Loaf News (1989): 6-11.
Describes two sites in the
South Carolina Cross-Age Tutoring Project that "offer hope of becoming
institutionalized": Tamassee-Salem High School and Branchville Elementary
and High School.
Wellman, H. M.
The
Child's Theory Of Mind. Cambridge,
MA: The MIT Press, 1990.
Discusses the distinction
between mental and physical phenomena, young children's understanding of
belief, "belief-desire psychology," and "everyday
theories." Deals primarily with children ages six and younger.
Wood, D.
How
Children Think And Learn. Oxford,
UK: Basil Blackwell Ltd., 1988.
Discusses the nature of
learning and thinking, stages of development, how children learn to think and
learn, language and learning, communication in school, literacy, mathematical
learning, and the implication of these for education.
* For those who wish to
pursue the differences between "peer" and "cross-age"
tutoring further, Damon and Phelps' concepts of "degrees of equality"
and "mutuality of interaction" may be helpful (1988).
**
See Kalkowski (1992) for more information on cooperative learning.
This publication is based on work sponsored
wholly, or in part, by the Office of Education Research and Improvement (OERI),
U.S. Department of Education, under Contract Number RP91002001. The content of
this publication does not necessarily reflect the views of OERI, the
Department, or any other agency of the U.S. Government.
This
publication is in the public domain and may be reproduced and disseminated
without permission. Please acknowledge NWREL as the developer.
March 1995
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Discussion Notes:
-likely that peer and
cross-age tutoring have been part of human existence since hunter-gatherer
times.
-adolescents instructing younger
siblings about edible berries and roots) was probably the first pedagogy among
primitive societies
-Peer tutoring is an approach
in which one child instructs another child in material on which the first is an
expert and the second is a novice
Peer tutoring occurs when
tutor and tutee are the same ageFinally, some researchers imply that there is
no such thing as a true "peer" tutor. As Damon and Phelps put it:
Why
Use Peer Tutoring?
-There are three commonly
cited benefits of peer and cross-age tutoring: the learning of academic skills,
the development of social behaviors and classroom discipline, and the
enhancement of peer relations
- Researchers have also
identified improvements in self-esteem and one of its components--internal
locus of control. It is important to note that all such benefits accrue to both
tutor and tutee.
-a more cooperative, pleasant
classroom atmosphere" and "[recruiting] promising future teachers
into the profession
High-Needs
Students
AS TUTORS
- -Research
on low-achieving and other high-needs students as tutors has increased in
the last decade. Both wide-ranging reviews and individual studies show
impressive gains for low-achieving, limited-English-speaking, learning
disabled, behaviorally disordered and other at-risk student populations in
both the academic and affective realms and at all age/grade levels. Areas
showing significant benefits for tutors engaged in peer Academic
achievement in various subject areas, particularly reading and mathematics
- Self-esteem
- Social
skills Attitude toward school
- Dropout
rate, truancy, tardiness AS TUTEES
- A variety of studies have
shown that students with disabilities benefit from being tutored. One broad
review of studies of both regular and special education students and across a variety
of subject areas were as effective or more effective than the traditional
teacher-mediated practices to which they were compared
Cost
-Peer tutoring was shown to be more cost-effective than
reducing class size or increasing the length of the school day. Even though
there may be high start-up costs, including planning time, teacher training,
consultation, peer-group or peer-tutor training, and monitoring to insure
quality control.
Why
Does Peer Tutoring Work?
- One reason peer tutoring
works may be that tutors and tutees speak a more similar language than do
teachers and students
- Unlike adult-child
instruction, [in] peer tutoring the expert party is not very far removed from
the novice party in authority or knowledge; nor has the expert party any
special claims to instructional competence. Such differences affect the nature
of discourse between tutor and tutee, because they place the tutee in a less
passive role than does the adult/child instructional relation. Being closer in
knowledge and status, the tutee in a peer relation feels freer to express
opinions, ask questions, and risk untested solutions. The interaction between
instructor and pupil is more balanced and more lively.
- Peer tutors may simply be
"good teachers." Teaching behaviors that were found to be positively
related to response rates and academic gains in the research include on-task
behavior, prompting and guiding, praise and encouragement, adjusting to the
child's needs, managing behavior problems, allowing autonomous performance,
bonding, cooperation, "go-faster" prompts, and "help"
Obstacles
To Use
- Many writers lament the
fact that peer tutoring is not used more often. As one teacher/author put it,
- Another reason peer tutoring is still not
widely used may be that "Virtually all schooling, in this country and
elsewhere, is structured around the traditional belief that knowledge is best
transmitted from adult to child in linear fashion"
- All of the following have also been cited
as obstacles: tradition, teacher resistance, possible disadvantages accruing to
the tutor, possible tutor impatience, implications of tutor selection, parent
cautiousness, implications for school organization, variable suitability of
different subjects for peer tutoring, and possible lack of expertise on tutors'
parts.
- Others have speculated that peer tutoring
may not be more widely used partly because of "the demands placed on
teacher time"
- Teachers may lack the skill to train their
students properly to be tutors, they may be concerned about possible disruptive
behavior in tutoring pairs, and they may question the quality of instruction
offered by students, particularly high-needs students
Addressing
Obstacles
- Research on collaborative learning shows that school
achievement, creation of positive race relations, and socialization are higher
in cooperative (or peer) settings. "Both mainstream and minority students
show far greater increases in academic achievement when they participate in
collaborative learning projects than when they remain in traditional
teacher-focused classrooms"
Conclusion
- The case for children's
peer relations has been made repeatedly and conclusively in developmental
theory and research . . . Repeated studies have shown that peer interaction is
conducive, perhaps even essential, to a host of important early achievements:
children's understanding of fairness, their self-esteem, their proclivities
toward sharing and kindness, their mastery of symbolic expression, their
acquisition of role-taking and communication skills, and their development of
creative and critical thinking.